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Introduction
Mineral Deficiencies
           General
           Sodium
           Magnesium
           Iron
Vitamin Deficiencies
B-Vitamin Dosages for CFS Sufferers
Vitamin Name Definition List
Protein Function & Amino Acid Conversion
Homocysteine Metabolism, Methylation & Glutathione Production
The Role of Antioxidants
Fatty Acid Imbalances
           Omega 3
           Omega 6
           Omega 7
           Omega 9
           Saturated Fats
           Trans Fats
           The Importance of correct Omega 6 to Omega 3 Ratio
           Cholesterol
           Maintaining a good oil balance
Phospholipid Deficiencies





Introduction:

From the digestive disorders section, it is clear that an impaired digestive system will fail to break down and assimilate all the vitamins, minerals and amino acids that the body requires to function perfectly. Stress can be a major factor in digestive efficiency in that blood circulation is reduced in the intestinal capillaries during periods of stress, resulting in reduced absorption of nutrients from food in the stomach and intestines. In addition, excessive partial detoxification products and other congestion on the cellular and mitochondrial membranes inhibit proper assimilation and carriage of nutrients into the cells (please see the toxification page). Over time, these factors can cause extreme nutrient deficiencies within the body, which have severely impact numeous bio-chemical processes and our well being. Not only this, but our diets are frequently low in certain elements too, such as Magnesium, exaccerbating the problem even further. Please note that anyone who engages in regular activities involving sweating (!), whether they are saunas, work outs etc., it is very important to replace the lost electrolyte minerals calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride either in one's diet or through supplementation (or both) as otherwise this can result in severe mineral depletion over time and mineral deficiencies. An active lifestyle involving regular saunas, sweating in hot climates, or regular jogging or work outs combined with poor diet, nutritional input and toxification can result in severe mineral and vitamin deficiencies and chronic fatigue.

For such people, taking a multi-vitamin and mineral supplement is neither here nor there. The simplest way to ascertain mineral deficiencies is to have a hair mineral analysis performed. Certain vitamins will be identified by such an analysis also, but for B-Vitamins, more sophisticated tests are required, such as urine or blood tests. You need to ascertain what you are chronically deficient of, and then engage in a regime of supplementation for that deficiency over a period of months to provide the body with what it needs to function properly. In addition, an energetic therapy will also assist in promoting proper digestive function, to address the root cause of the problem (assuming the actual diet is healthy and varied and sufficient in the requisite nutrients and food types). Such therapies are outlined on the energetic therapies page. A supplementation programme and complimentary therapy programme should be co-ordinated in conjunction with a doctor or consultant.

In addition, nutrients are likely better absorbed from the digestive system into the blood and from the blood into the cell membranes of the tissues if the nutrients, water content of the blood and indeed the cells themselves are highly electromagnetically charged. It is likely that the use of an FIR sauna just at the moment (or perhaps just before) of taking the vitamin or mineral supplements may aid absorption. The wearing of devices to stimulate the electromagnetic field of the body may well have such an effect also. Please see the electromagnetic deficiencies page and toxicity page for more information.

It could be argued that nutritional supplements are a waste of time, on account of the fact that the vast majority are articifically synthesised or derived from petroleum products or coal-tar, and on a molecular level do not have the same structure/spin as their naturally occurring counterparts, and are thus second best or even worthless or harmful. This is not BlackSpy's personal opinion, at least regarding minerals, as they are by definition single molecules (their electromagnetic properties being another matter). There is probably some truth to this regarding vitamins, especially B-vitamins, and natural sources may well be more effective than their synthetic counterparts when taken in MUCH higher dosages. It is clearly better to obtain all of one's nutritional needs from a healthy diet, but in the case of chronic deficiencies and digestive impairment (i.e. the inability to break down, extract and absorb nutrients from food into the body's cells), and in the view of soil depletion and the likely inferior nutritional qualities of non-organic food sources, a combination of a healthy diet (including those food types that are high in the nutritional elements, vitamins and oils that the body is deficient in) and temporary supplementation (as required) is highly likely to be best.

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Mineral Deficiencies:

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General:

A variety of elements may be deficient in a person with CFS or related conditions, but the most common are Magnesium and Selenium. Others essential and non-essential elements that may be in low include Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, Copper, Zinc, Manganese, Chromium, Vanadium, Molybdenum, Boron, Iodine, Lithium, Phosphorus, Strontium, Sulfur, Barium, Cobalt, Iron, Germanium, Rubidium and Zirconium. Low levels of each essential and non-essential element have a corresponding biochemical impact on the body. The levels of these essential and trace elements can be determined by means of a hair mineral analysis. The vast majority of CFS sufferers have a number of the above elements in moderate to chronically low levels. In addition, a high toxic burden of heavy metals will have a displacement effect on specific nutritional elements, worsening the effect still (for example, zinc). Please see the toxic and nutritional element chart on the toxicity page for further information. Low magnesium and vitamin B6 levels are frequently associated with those suffering from sleep disorders. Low zinc levels (often indicated by a high hair mineral level) are frequently associated with poor immune system function. Cobalt is derived from vitamin B12, and so a cobalt severe deficiency is often symptomatic of a severe B12 deficiency.

Poor digestive function, particurlarly low stomach acid and digestive enzyme production, as well as toxins on the inter- and intra-cellular membranes, may mean a person does not effectively absorb and extract all nutritional elements from consumed food and even supplements, for example magnesium, calcium and potassium and numerous trace elements. Another effect of insufficient stomach acid and enzyme production is the inability to extract and absorb vital nutritional elements from food and even supplements, for example magnesium, calcium, zinc or potassium.

Magnesium is vital for normal muscle contraction (and general function), bone health and maintenance of normal blood pressure (and optimal cardiac health). It is critical to over 300 different enzymes reactions in the body. Magnesium is important in stabilising ATP. With a deficiency of Magnesium, the ATP becomes over-regulated or inhibited, resulting in low energy levels.

In addition, inefficient amino acid conversion can result in a vast number of biochemical problems - as amino acids are involved in many processes. Amino acids and the body's ability to break down protein and synthesise different amino acids (including processes like methylation) is essential in a huge number of bio-chemical processes in the body, besides building up tissue, including for example the synthesis of enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, antibodies, blood transport proteins and other vital types of protein; and in cellular energy production. Enzymes (protein-based) are not just used in digestion but different enzymes play a huge number of different roles in the body, for example, breaking down inflammation or antioxidants. A failure to break down proteins properly in the digestive tract and a failure to convert (specific) amino acids properly (in sufficient quantities) clearly has a huge effect on the biochemical and hormonal balance, and functioning and efficiency of many processes in the body.

Specifically relating to nutrient depletion, besides poor digestive function, inefficient amino acid conversion can lead to the wasting of vital amino acids in the kidneys into the urine, for example, Taurine, which is required to effectively transport minerals into the tissues and cells. It is possible to be supplementing, for example, a Potassium chelate, every day, and eat a diet relatively high in Potassium, but have one's cellular levels of Potassium drop. The reasons for this could be the lack of an efficient transport mechanism to get the mineral into one's cells and also excessive stress which can lead to mineral wasting. Studies have shown that taurine levels in vegans are frequently significantly lower than in those eating meat and dairy products. Please see Wikipedia below for some more information on Taurine.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine

Nutritional deficiences may also cause a number of adverse enegetic and biochemical effects in the body, including further impairment of the digestive system. Therefore, it is often necessary to address both types of deficiency through supplementation (of both minerals and vitamins, and additional transport amino acids such as taurine if required) before the body can 'naturally' take over and absorb nutrients effectively and produce enough stomach acid/digestive enzymes naturally and its nutrient levels are high enough. It is usually not sufficient to suppplement additional minerals to overcome one's mineral deficiencies. Chronic deficiencies should of course be addressed through immediate supplementation (and this is something that a CFS sufferer should identify and establish at the very beginning of any treatment programme) and using Betaine HCl to make up for the lack of stomach acid to help with digestion and extraction of the minerals and vitamins into the blood stream.

An article examining the beneficial effects of amino acid supplementation is shown at the link below.

Metametrix Institute: Treatment of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome with Specific Amino Acid Supplementation

Identification of which amino acids are not being converted properly can be achieved by a blood or urinary amino acid profile. Please see the Identification page for more information.

However, until the digestive system is functioning properly, and the diet is sufficiently nutritious and appropriate for the individual, and the excessive amounts of toxins and partial detoxification products have been removed from the inter- and intra-cellular membranes, supplementation will only make so much progress. And if neither the digestive system or mineral and vitamin deficiencies are addressed, it is likely that both will deteriorate further. It is rather like a catch 22 situation. In addition, in some individuals, a very difficult to digest diet is likely to add to the above problems. As discussed above, stimulation of the digestive system energetically and removal of the vast majority of toxins from the body is necessary to enable the body to fully absorb all the minerals and vitamins it actually requires and is deficient in. It is easy to see how many CFS cases remain unresolved if these both these areas are not addressed.

As a general rule, chelated forms of nutritional elements (e.g. metal anions bonded to organic molecules such as amino acids, e.g. citrate, orotate, gluconate, glycinate, aspartate, malate, polynicotinate etc.) are easier to absorb than inorganic forms (e.g. metallic oxides or metallic salts, e.g. carbonate). However, this is not always true, depending on what element one is talking about and of course the individual (i.e. sodium chloride is an effective way of taking sodium). Sometimes, a mixture of different forms of the same element may be optimal for absorption and delivery to the tissues. An individual may be taking high levels of a particular metal supplement, e.g. zinc, but failing to elevate his cellular zinc levels over months of supplementation, as the form of zinc (e.g. zinc oxide) is not readily absorbable.

Please note that amino acids can be taken in their acid format, or as amino acid salts of a nutritional metal. For example, if one wishes to take 'butyrate', then one can either take butyric acid or for example calcium and magnesium butyrate. If one takes a chelated mineral supplement (i.e. an amino acid salt), for example, magnesium citrate, then this may result in a large amounts of citrate being consumed. Intake of disproportionately large amounts of certain amino acids may have no ill effect on the amino acid balance and conversion processes that take place in the body. Others however may put the body into imbalance with respect to certain amino acids, and their precursors or the amino acids they are normally converted to. An amino acid analysis should highlight any problems that would be occurring in the body.

Supplementation of essential and trace elements in accordance with those shown to be most chronically deficient (e.g. from hair mineral analysis report) can significantly assist progress in treating CFS or related conditions. There is certainly wisdom in increasing food types that contain the specific mineral that you are most deficient in, and some people may choose to rely on an excellent diet alone to replenish low mineral and vitamin levels. However, BlackSpy would not personally recommend this. A combination of a readily digestible and nutritious diet combined with relevant mineral and vitamin supplementation is probably optimal.

Magnesium and Zinc are important for mitochondrial function (the Krebs cycle for energy production). Potassium is important for proper adrenal function. In extremely deficient individuals, where oral supplementation (of the correct minerals in the right form and dosage) is not making much difference, then one's consultant may advise intravenous (IV) injections of minerals such as Magnesium Sulphate (concentration: 1g/2ml; typical dose: 2ml or 1g) and/or Zinc Sulphate (concentration: 100mg/10ml; typical dose: 10ml or 100mg), in combination with oral supplementation (e.g. Magnesium and Zinc) and transdermal application (e.g. Magnesium cream or Epsom salts bath). It may be wise to take minerals orally such Magnesium and Zinc at different times (as opposed to taking them together) to improve absorption. Another form of Magnesium injection is Magnesium Chloride in the Myer's Cocktail (see below for details).

Manganese in combination with certain vitamins and minerals is essential for many biochemical reactions, including carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. Manganese deficiency is frequently relate to low blood sugar levels, ligamentous problems and reproductive dysfunction. Manganese is also involved in the synthesis of the body's own powerful antioxidants.

The ideal Calcium (Ca) to Magnesium (Mg) ratio is around 7:1. A Magnesium deficiency relative to Calcium (i.e. a very high Ca to Mg ratio) may cause calcium to precipitate out of solution and to be 'wasted', contributing to high urinary Calcium levels, Calcium deposition in the urinary tract and gallbladder (e.g. gallstone or mineral build up in gallbladder). Calcium absorption is greatly enhanced when the diet is high in the amino acids arginine, histidine and lysine. These proteins also help to reduce the acidity of tissues. Foods containing significant levels of these amino acids include soy beans, lean sausage, beef, skimmed milk, spare ribs (pork), lentils, heart, salami, ham, lamb, peanuts, bass, cod and Canadian bacon.

Sodium and Potassium are regulated by the adrenal glands. Efficient adrenal glandular activity is required to maintain a good balance of these electrolytes. The optimum ratio of Na to K is around 2.4:1, with a lower level being indicative of adrenal problems and a susceptibility to depression, tension and phobias.

Low Sodium (Na) levels are often associated with reduced adrenal activity. Production of stomach acid (HCl) is dependent on sufficient Na levels.

A high Calcium to Potassium ratio is often associated with an underactive thyroid gland with fatigue being a common symptom. The ideal ratio of Ca to K is 2.4:1.

The golden rule when it comes to overcoming mineral deficiencies (or CFS in general) is to NEVER ASSUME ANYTHING! Your mineral levels are not static and can go up and down. Don't assume that all the relevant levels will keep going up or stay the same. They may go down. If you don't improve the quality of your digestion, even though you are supplementing various minerals, taking betaine HCl and have a good diet, you may find that many of your mineral levels continue to drop. Anyone attempting to overcome mineral deficiencies should really have a hair mineral analysis performed AT LEAST every six months. If you have digestive problems, it is advisable to have a urine test performed (e.g. Amino Acid Analysis Report) and to explore other factors that may be contributing to your digestive/nutritional problems, e.g. diet, stress, etc. It is not advisable to simply take a certain dosage of a particular mineral you are deficient in, and stop after a month or so because you lose interest and assume your levels are normal again! It may take anywhere between a month and a couple of years to get mineral levels back to normal, depending on the element one is talking about. Cellular trace elements are usually easier to replenish and get back to normal levels than essential nutritional mineral levels, because of the vast difference in daily quantity required. The daily requirement for Potassium for example is around 2g a day! Taking a 100mg supplement if you are chronically short of Potassium is neither here nor there. It is best to seek advice from a skilled medical practitioner in dosing minerals and vitamin levels.

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Sodium:

If one is deficient in Sodium, it often follows that one is also deficient in the other essential minerals, such as calcium and magnesium. A good way of introducing more sodium into the diet is to take Himalayan Crystal Salt. A convenient way to take this is to clean out a screw top jar, then pour mineral water into it and place a few rocks of Himalayan Crystal Salt into it. Screw the top on. Leave out exposed to natural sunlight. Leave over night. Then take 1-2 dessert spoons (10ml) each morning. Leave the jar out in the kitchen or wherever, in natural light, indefinitely. The solution should always be saturated, i.e. there should always be excess crystals in the pot. As the crystal levels get low, add more crystals. As the water level gets low, add more mineral water. The mixture is generally known as Sole, pronounced 'so-lay', and has various benefits other than its sodium content.

If one considers the Sodium Chloride content of a saturated solution to be 26.4% salt by weight at room temperature (60F or 15C). The density of water is 1kg/litre. The salt concentration of 26.4% is therefore 0.26kg/l or 260g/l. One 10ml dessert spoon is 1/100th of a litre (1000ml), so the amount of Sodium Chloride in one 10ml dessert spoon = 260/100 = 2.6g. The daily recommended maximum intake for a 'normal' person is approximately 7g of salt. Bear in mind that those with CFS may be deficient in Sodium on account of poor absorption, so one's daily intake may need to be more than 7g per day. Consult with your medical practitioner and discuss your mineral level test results and any recommended action.

Suppliers of Himalayan Crystal Salt can be found on the links page. The Sole recipe can be found on the recipes page. Himalayan Crystal salt can also be used in the bath, but it may prove cost prohibitive! Ordinary table salt could perhaps be used instead although ideal.

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Magnesium:

Magnesium displacement is also a problem in those with heavy metal toxicity. Your exact magnesium level requirements can be ascertained quite easily. Taking more magnesium than the body can absorb in the short term is not harmful and merely results in diahorrea. The excess magnesium simples passes through the digestive system and draws in water from the blood stream. With higher and higher levels of magnesium, the faeces become gradually softer and softer until an explosive diahorrea occurs. This principle is used in many colon cleansing products, which aim to remove mucoid plaque and faeces build up by flushing out the colon. They often contain oxygen releasing chemicals which help to kill off your beneficial bacteria too, which is not a good thing. And they are usually very expensive.

What we are suggesting here is that you may want to consider taking an absorbable form of magnesium (the form your body can most readily absorb may vary over time and between individuals, but most commonly it is a chelated form of Magnesium such as Magnesium Glycinate, Aspartate or Citrate, with some added Magnesium Oxide (inorganic)), and slowly increase your daily dosage over a period of time, until you reach the point of diahorrea. At this point, back off slightly, and then you have found your maximum/optimal amount of magnesium to take. Of course, you should not take your daily dosage of magnesium all in one go, as the body can clearly not absorb it all, and you will experience diahorrea. It is best to take as little as possible as many times a day as possible. You may find that you can take a couple of hundred milligrams at a time without experiencing diahorrea, it may be slightly more, it may be slightly less. You need to find what works best for you. You may find taking small dosages every hour or every two hours works well for you. The reaction of diahorrea to too much magnesium may not come immediately, it may come the next day, so you may have to wait a day until you know your day's dosage was alright. If you are taking anything that is laxative in nature, such as Aloe Vera juice, this may induce diahorrea early in your magnesium supplementation programme.

When you first start this regime, as you slowly increase your daily dosage, you may feel totally wired and experience feelings of euphoria at levels of 400-500% of the RDA per day. This in general terms is a signal from the body that it has been absolutely desperate for this mineral for years, and now it is getting exactly what it wants. Of course, in this instance there is no negative effect, unlike drugs which may make you feel temporarily euphoric, but wreak havoc with your physiology, not to mention your mind. So start slowly with small amounts at a time, and gradually increase the number of times a day you take it over a week or two until you find your optimum level. Over a period of weeks, the body will gradually make up for its magnesium deficit, and the actual amount you need to take will slowly decrease over time. You will notice this by taking the same amount each day, and one day getting diahorrea. This is the signal to reduce the dosage slightly. You may also find that you can still take the same daily amount of magnesium happily, but that you need to break it up into smaller individual dosages during the day to avoid diahorrea. In general terms, the amount you can take per day and per dosage will decrease over time. So what you are effectively doing is finding the optimum balance and dosage/dosage frequency of magnesium to achieve the maximum rate of absorption of magnesium whilst respecting the digestive system and ensuring that your stools do not become too loose, adapting your dosage/dosage frequency with time in accordance with your body's needs. An example of a good magnesium supplement is Nutri's Ultra Muscleze and Vital Nutrients' Triple Mag. You may wish to try a couple of different high quality Magnesium supplements or your naturopath/consultant can assist you in finding the particular supplement that works best for your body using kinesiology. After a certain point in your treatment, once you have significantly reduced the magnesium deficiency in your tissues, your naturopath/consultant may determine that your body no longer requires the maximum dosage of magnesium, and requires a slightly lower dosage.

If you are taking a magnesium supplement which contains malic acid, then you may not to alternate with a magnesium product that does not contain it perhaps every month or two, as it may create a little balance in the Krebs cycle for energy production (specifically the Citric Acid Cycle). Where malic acid levels are artificially elevated for prolonged periods, they may cause the body to convert less fumaric acid into malic acid (as there is little requirement), resulting in hugely elevated fumaric acid levels. You may notice this yourself, for example, a magnesium supplement in drink form that once tasted amazing, losing its zing and somehow has a taste that the body is telling you it doesn't want.

Taurine is an amino acid which is synergistic with magnesium delivery to the body's cells. Taurine is an ion and pH buffer in the heart, muscles and central nervous system. It is also a major constituent of bile. It is also a powerful antioxidant and antitoxin, particularly important to the liver and immune system. Taurine is also classified as a 'semi-essential nutrient'. If you are short of taurine (i.e. your urine levels of taurine are very high because your kidneys are 'wasting' it from the body), you will not absorb magnesium properly and you will 'waste' magnesium from the body. This has many adverse effects on the body. Many good magnesium supplements contain Taurine (such as Ultra Muscleze). L-Methionine is a precursor to Taurine which may also be taken to assist in nutrient assimilation. However, no amino acid supplementation should be undertaken without guidance from a qualified practitioner and a urine test (amino acid analysis profile). Taurine is defined below on Wikipedia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine

If you do take more than a couple of 100% RDA of magnesium in a day, (at one point BlackSpy was taking a daily total of 1300%), then you will need to take additional betaine HCl tablets/capsules with your magnesium. This is because Mg is alkaline in nature and will neutralise your stomach acid. A rough guide is to take 400-700mg of betaine HCl with each magnesium dosage (300mg chelated Magnesium). If you are taking large amounts of magnesium and you do not do this, then you will experience large amounts of pungent wind, which is a sign of poor protein digestion (i.e. not enough stomach acid to break down the protein, leaving bad bacteria to break it down in the intestines.)

A supplementary way of taking magnesium is to have an epsom salts bath. Epsom Salts are basically Magnesium Sulphate (an inorganic salt) and readily dissolve in water. Epsom salts can be purchased from high street chemists, e.g. Boots, where it is likely to be significantly cheaper than mail ordering it from a health supplements vendor. A typical amount is a handful or fistful of epsom salts in a warm to hot bath. One should stay in the bath for at least 15 minutes to ensure effective absorption through the skin (transdermal). If you do not have access to a bath tub, then you could consider using a plastic tub or similar, and filling it with an inch or two of warm water, and mixing in the epsom salts into that. Then place your feet in it and leave to soak for 15+ minutes. The longer the better. Some sufferers of CFS or related conditions have problems with hot baths or foot baths and find that they cannot sleep at night if they have a bath the same day. Try and see what works best for you. An alternative to epsom salts are other salt mixtures, such as Dead Sea Salts. These naturally occuring salt mixture contains high levels of magnesium, e.g. 47%+ MgCl2 (Magnesium Chloride), <2.2% CaCl2 (Calcium Chloride), <0.8% NaCl (Sodium Chloride), <0.5% KCl (Potassium Chloride). Many people have reported health benefits from swimming in the Dead Sea, and it is likely that they were depleted in essential minerals, mainly Magnesium. It is likely if a sufferer of CFS wishes to go on holiday, that choosing a holiday by the Dea Sea may be of some benefit! Alternatively, buy the packs of epsom salt or dead sea salt from your chemist!

Please note that supplementation of other minerals than magnesium is not that simple, and excessive blood and tissue levels may upset one's biochemical balance and cause problems with other mineral uptake and usage. The correct mineral ratios in the body are of critical importance. It is not recommended to supplement minerals without a hair mineral analysis and without recommendation from a qualified specialist.

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Iron:

'Iron is an essential mineral and an important component of proteins involved in oxygen transport and metabolism. Iron is also an essential cofactor in the synthesis of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. About 15 percent of the body's iron is stored for future needs and mobilized when dietary intake is inadequate. The body usually maintains normal iron status by controlling the amount of iron absorbed from food. There are two forms of dietary iron: heme and non-heme. Sources of heme iron include meat fish and poultry. Sources of non-heme iron, which is not absorbed as well as heme iron, include beans, lentils, flours, cereals, and grain products. Other sources of iron include dried fruit, peas, asparagus, leafy greens, strawberries, and nuts.'

www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-iron.html

It has been observed in some patients who are suffering from a temporary fatigue that it is related to iron deficiency or anaemia. It is regarded as the most common form of nutritional deficiency by the WHO. Iron levels can be determined by a blood count, blood test or hair mineral analysis. Supplementation with iron or eating more iron rich foods will alleviate this condition.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_deficiency_(medicine)

The opposite of anaemia is haemochromatosis (aka hemochromatosis). The condition takes the form of excessive iron absorption of dietary sources of iron, resulting in a pathological increase in total bodily iron stores. Humans are unable to excrete excess iron. Excess iron tends to build up in the tissues and organs, including the brain, liver, pancreas, heart and adrenal glands, disrupting their normal function. Iron in high concentrations turns from being a nutritional element into a toxic element. This can result in fatigue amongst other symptoms mimmicking other diseases, as it has a psychological and neurological impact. Iron overload has also been connected to excessive parasite overgrowth, for example liver pathologies. The hereditary form of the disease is thought to affect up to 20% of the population, mainly in Northern Europe.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemochromatosis

'Males are usually diagnosed after their forties and fifties, and women several decades later, owing to regular iron loss through menstruation (which ceases in menopause). The severity of clinical disease in the hereditary form varies considerably. There is evidence suggesting that hereditary haemochromatosis patients affected with other liver ailments such as hepatitis or alcoholic liver disease suffer worse liver disease than those with either condition alone. There are also juvenile forms of hereditary haemochromatosis that present in childhood with the same consequences of iron overload.'

In haemochromatosis cases, the tissue build up of iron can presumably be detected via a hair mineral analysis or otherwise blood nutritional element tests. The usual method of testing is to measure Ferritin, a protein found in blood serum which is manufacturered by the liver to bind iron. Those suffering from haemochromatosis should avoid all supplements containing iron and avoid foods that are particularly rich in iron.

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Vitamin Deficiencies:

People suffering from CFS or related conditions frequently are suffering from oxidative and free radical damage as a result of years of intrusion by foreign organisms, environmental toxification, heavy metals and toxins from fried foods etc. Antioxidant supplementation in such individuals is critical. Antioxidants include Selenium and Vitamins A, C and E. Antioxidants are also present in a variety of green leafy foods and algae.

It may not recommended to take more than the recommended daily dosage of Vitamin A (in the form of pre-formed Retinyl Palmitate), as it may cause osteoporosis over a number of years. This does not appear to be an issue with Beta-Carotene which is converted into (retinol) Vitamin A by the body as and when it is required (a provitamin). Too high a daily dosage of Beta-Carotene can make one's skin go orange after a while. This is the body's way of storing it. If this happens then simply reduce the dosage and normal colouration will return!) Chris Masterjohn argues that high levels of Vitamin A intake are fine as long as it is taken in a natural form and not a synthesized form (i.e. Cod Liver Oil) where it is balanced Vitamin D and K.

www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Benefit-Of-Cod-Liver-Oil.html

Much higher amounts of C and E can be safely taken. Vitamin C is water soluble and can be safely taken in high doses. There is no toxic level as such, as the body induces diahorrea when it has reached its maximum dosage, which is around 10g per day. Mega vitamin doses (of A, C and E) should only really be taken for short periods of time, for example during winter months. Where you choose to obtain your antioxidants from is your decision. Not all those with related conditions have any oxidant damage.

There is significant evidence that sufficient quantities/availability of Vitamin D can help with proper immune system dysfunction, and conversely, Vitamin D deficiency can result in immune system dysfunction.

www.meresearch.org.uk/research/projects/vitamind.html

Mercola's comments on Vitamin D and Immune System Function

All B-Vitamins are usually very low in those with CFS or related conditions, in particular B6, B7, B9 and B12. B-vitamins in general are very low in our western diets. B-vitamins in general are highly (water) soluble, and levels can therefore drop off very quickly. Years of shortage and inefficient absorption may result in B-vitamin deficiencies of astonomical scale! Vitmains B12, B7 (folic acid) and B6 are required for methylation processes in the body (addition of a carbon atom to a carbon chain), in particular concerned with the production of stomach acid. An example of good B12 supplement is Nutri's Methyl Max. Methylcobalamin (pink in colour) or Adenosylcobalamin are probably the most readily absorbable forms of B12. Cyanocobalamin is the least absorbable but most commonly found in supplements (also pink in colour).

3 chemicals, Folic Acid, 5-Formyl Tetrahydrofolate (aka Folinic Acid), and L-5-Methyl Tetrahydrofolate are required for folate to be metabolized in the body. Folic Acid has to be converted to 5-Formyl Tertahydrofolate, which in turn has to be converted to L-5-methyl tetrahydrofolate, the active and isomeric form of folate in the blood. A complete folate nutritional supplement (or just purely L-5-methyl tetrahydrofolate) may be very useful for those individuals (roughly 25% of humans) who do not possess the ability to activate folic acid on account of genetic variability (known as MTHFR enzyme deficiency). It is very expensive to test for deficiency in this gene, but relatively inexpensive to supplement to assure folate metabolism. Examples of folate supplements include Nutritional Concepts' Actifolate (containing all 3), Metagenics Folapro (containing L-5-methyl tetrahydrofolate) or Metagenics Intrinsi B12/Folate (containing all 3). If one is deficient in folic acid/folate, one may want to alternate between taking a high dose of a simple folic acid supplement and a folinic/folate supplement, and see if you feel any difference. If not, then it may well be that you can adequately convert folic acid. Folic acid is a man-made form of folate, the B-vitamin that naturally occurs in food. High folate foods include black-eye beans, Brussels sprouts, beef and yeast extract, kale, spinach, granary bread, spring greens, broccoli, parsnips and chickpeas. Liver is also very high in folic acid, but also very high in vitamin A also. Overcooking of course destroys folate, as well as other B-vitamins.

Please see the section below on Methylation and Homocysteine Metabolism for more information on the vital importance of Vitamin B12. Vegan and vegetarian food is in general quite low in Vitamin B12. Vegetarians and vegans may elect to supplement B12 or to eat a food source rich in B12. This could be an algae like Spirulina or a yeast extract product like Marmite. One must take into account that algae has a cold energetic property. Marmite was originally created because the brewing industry had so much excess yeast, it was literally throwing it away. It was a waste product. Opportunistic entrepreneurs created a product to make use of the cheap source of yeast.

Adenosylcobalamin (Adenosyl-B12) or Methylcobalamin (Methyl-B12) are considered to be the most readily absorbed forms of Vitamin B12. Cyanocobalamin is the least readily absorbable form, but is the most common form sold in supplement form as it is more stable in air. Cyanocobalamin can be produced from three sources: 1) extracted from mammalian liver 2) as a metabolic product of bacterial fermentation 3) extracted from sewage sludge.

www.centrumistoxic.com/b12.html

[Cyanocobalamin] 'Although generally accepted as safe (GRAS) by the FDA for human consumption, human studies have reported allergic reactions to skin testing, and mice given 1.5-3 mg/kg (i.e. 1500 - 3000 mcg/kg) body weight experienced convulsions, followed by cardiac and respiratory failure.'

This is probably 50-100 times the dosage of the highest strength Cyanocobalamin supplements on the market, so the likelihood of toxicity in humans is very low.

Cyanocobalamin is not the active form of B12. In order for the body to use this form of B12 it must enzymatically remove the cyanide portion of this molecule, releasing it in the form of thiocyanate which can be safely excreted. The remaining cobalamin portion must then be converted into methylcobalamin or adenosylcobalamin, in order for it to perform useful biological work. Because some people lack the proper enzyme to actively detoxify and convert cyanocobalamin, or are overwhelmed by the ingestion of too much cyanide, it can accumulate in the body resulting in toxicity. (reference: Linnell JC, Matthews DM. Cobalamin metabolism and its clinical aspects. Clin Sci (Lond). 1984 Feb/66(2):113-21.)'

Vitamin B6 is a co-factor in energy production and deficiency is most frequently associated with those with sleeping disorders. B6/P5P is required in the body's melatonin/serotonin production cycle, and a chronic deficiency in B6/P5P may often result in the inability to stay asleep at night. It is better to take the active form of vitamin B6, known as P5P (pyridoxal-5-phosphate) which can be more easily utilised by the body than plain B6 (pyroxidine). B-vitamins have a nourishing effect on the adrenal glands too, and balanced hormonal production is critical to sleep. Nutri's Ultra-Muscleze contains all the above nutrients mentioned on this page. There are equivalent products available on the market. For those with chronic B-vitamin shortages, additional supplementation may be required. B-vitamins are relatively safe to take over long periods in high dosages. B6/P5P produces a tingling and numbness in the fingers if taken in mega dosages over long periods, otherwise it is safe. The likelihood is however that the body will absorb whatever is thrown at it (in small amounts at a time of course).

Biotin is another critical B-vitamin that is often found to be low in sufferers of CFS or related conditions. Biotin, also known as Vitamin H or B7, has a variety of important functions in the body. It assists in the metabolism of carbohydrates (CHO), protein and fatty acids (lipid metabolism), and also in the release of energy from cells and energy production (mitochondrial function). Biotin is also an essential cofactor (co-enzyme) of intracellular carboxylase enzymes. Biotin is defined below on Wikipedia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotin

B1 (Thiamin) performs many critical functions in the body and is not infrequently low in sufferers of CFS or related conditions. It contributes to the healthy functioning of the brain, msucles and nervous system. It is essential for energy, carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism, and acts as a coenzyme in vital cellular reactions. Low B1 levels have been observed in freshwater marine animals in disrupted ecosystems where gradual brain damage (brain death) has occurred, resulting in an inability to co-ordinate and control muscular movement, resulting in an inability to swim or move properly, and drowning. Thiamin is described on Wikipedia below.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamin

To understand the importance of B-vitamins, please see the Homocysteine Metabolism and Glutathione production section below. The importance of sufficient B-vitamins and availability cannot be stated enough in CFS cases.

Premier Research Labs' Max Stress B Nano-Plex is a B-Vitamin supplement that is produced from plant and food extracts, rather than from bacterial cultures or synthesised from petrochemicals. The B vitamins are present in RDA type dosages, but it appears to be at least as effective if not more effective than other B vitamin supplements where the vitamins are present in HUGE dosages. This is probably on account of their natural and unaltered molecular form rendering them more readily utilised by cells.





http://www.qnhshop.com/product.php?productid=16140&cat=296&page=1

Garden of Life offer a raw food (fruit and greens) based vitamin product called The Vitamin Code. This contains a wide variety of vitamins and minerals taken from raw food sources. It comes in a capsule form. Special formulations are made for both men and women, although for CFS sufferers (!) one would assume to take the one designed for one's sex. BlackSpy will be trialling this shortly.

www.thevitamincode.com/Formulas/Men/tabid/1313/Default.aspx

www.gardenoflife.com/ProductsforLife/THEVITAMINCODE/MensFormula/tabid/1369/Default.aspx



Marmite, the famous yeast extract spread, is manufactured from brewer's yeast (candida neutral), and contains significant quantities of various B-vitamins, including B1, B2, B3 and B9 (Folic Acid), produced naturally by the yeast. Vitamin B12 does not naturally occur in Marmite or brewer's yeast in general, and is added (in synthetic form?) Marmite is 39% protein, 24% carbohydrate and 3.4% fibre by weight. The Australian version (unlike the European version) contains added refined sugar so is to be avoided.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmite



Spirulina is a good natural source of vitamin B-12. Please see the Digestion page for further information.

Vitamin supplements, and indeed any other liquid supplement or detoxification product can be taken sublingually rather than simply swallowed. Sublingual absorption literally means under the tongue, through the capillaries under the tongue and directly into the blood stream, rather than having to pass through the digestive tract and be absorbed through the digestive wall. This method of absorption is more effective and direct, and indeed quicker. Some vitamins and formulations come in a sublingual liquid form, but others can simply be chewed with saliva and the mixture then pushed and held under the tongue for 30 seconds before being swallowed for maximum absorption.

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B-Vitamin Dosages for CFS Sufferers:

In many patients of CFS or other conditions, the uptake of B-vitamins is extremely poor, for bio-chemical reasons, and the only mechanism remaining for absorption of certain B-vitamins may be diffusion, which is highly inefficient. For that reason, high strength B-vitamin supplements are often used.

e.g.1.) 250mcg Adenosycobalamin B12 (15,000% RDA) per capsule, up to 6 capsules per day; e.g. Nutri Ltd Methyl Max

e.g.2.) 1000mcg Cyanocobalamin B12 (100,000% RDA), up to 3 tablets per day; e.g. Holland and Barrett Vitamin B12 1000mcg

e.g.3.) 5000mcg Methylcobalamin B12 per day (83,333% RDA) - from Detoxx Book, e.g. Jarrow Formulas Methyl B-12 5000

e.g.4.) 1000mcg Methylcobalamin B12 (16,666% RDA), 3-5 times a day; e.g. Jarrow Formulas Methyl B-12 1000

e.g.5.) 50mg P5P (Active B6) per capsule, up to 6 capsules per day; e.g. Vital Nutrients P5P 50mg.

e.g.6.) 1000mcg Biotin tablets, 3 times a day (600% RDA); e.g. Holland & Barrett.

The above dosages are not being necessarily recommended but are for illustrative purposes only. It is best to determine the dosages using Applied Kinesiology. You could also experiment yourself with the dosages and try different forms and types of supplements, within sensible limits (at your own risk of course!) In certain cases, a patient may greatly benefit from weekly injections of Vitamin B12 for example, where oral supplementation is not necessarily resulting in higher B12 levels in the blood and tissues. B12 injections are normally in the form of 2000mcg cyanocobalamin injections, either intra muscular (IM) or intra venous (IV).

Myer's Cocktail is an IV or Intra Muscular injection containing a variety of nutritional elements and vitamins, including Magnesium (typically sulphate or chloride), Calcium Gluconate, and Vitamins C, B12 (hydroxycobalamin), B6 (pyridoxine), B5 (dexpanthenol), and B complex 100. Glutathione can be optionally included. There are different ways of administering the Myer's Cocktail, and some nurses/doctors inject a low dosage in one quick IM injection (a minute or two).

http://www.endfatigue.com/tools-support/Iv-Nutritional-Support.html

Others prefer to work with much large quantities of the Cocktail and administer it slowly (using a drip) over a period of perhaps 30 to 60 minutes (IV).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers'_cocktail

According to Jacob Teitelbaum's recipe, the following dosages are employed in the Myer's Cocktail. The higher dosages are administered over a longer period of time:

- Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) - 500mg/ml; 1-10ml: 500 - 5000mg
- Magnesium Sulphate - 500mg/ml (50% - typo in above link); 2-4ml: 1-2mg
- Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) - 100mg/ml; 1ml; 100mg
- Hydroxycobalamin (Vitamin B12) - 3000mcg/ml; 1ml; 3000mcg (3mg) - IM
- B-Complex 100 (no concentration information) - 0.5-1.0ml
- Dexpanthenol (Vitamin B5) - 250mg/ml; 0.5ml: 125mg
- Calcium Gluconate - 100mg/ml (10%); 4-10ml: 400-1000mg
- Glutathione - 200mg/ml; 2-5ml: 400mg - 1000mg - administered separately

Please see the Phospholipid Therapy section on the Detoxification page for more information on Glutathione and Phospholipid injections.

Below is a web site summarising the RDAs of B vitamins for healthy people of a variety of ages, and also therapeutic doses.

www.acu-cell.com/bx2.html

When purchasing any vitamin or mineral supplements, one should really try to look at the ingredients and look out for and avoid products containing various unwanted compounds, like sucrose (i.e. refined sugar), dextrose or titanium dioxide. It is best to purchase products from reputable brands that you know are of very high quality.

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Vitamin Name Definition List:

Vitamin	Definition
A	Retinol
A-Precursor	Betacarotine
B1	Thiamin
B2 / G	Riboflavin
B3	Niacin, Nicotinic Acid
Active B3	Niacinamide
B4	Adenine
B5	Pantothenic Acid, Panthenol, Pantothenate
B6	Pyridoxine HCl
Active B6	Pyridoxal-5-Phosphate (P5P)
B7 / H	Biotin
B8	Inositol
B9	Folic Acid, Folate
B10	Pteroylmonoglutamic acid
B11 / S	Factor S
B12	Cobalamin, Cyanocobalamin, Methylcobalamin, Adenosylcobalamin
Bp	Choline
Bx	Para-Aminobenzoic Acid (PABA)
C	Ascorbic Acid
D	Ergocalciferol, Calciferol, Colecalciferol
E	Alpha-tocopherol
F	Linoleic Acid (LA) , Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA), Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA), Arachadonic Acid (AA)
K	Menadione, Phytomenadione
P	Bioflavinoids

Some of above compounds are amino acids etc. and not strictly vitamins, but have been ascribed abbreviated vitamin nomenclature.

Please note that:

1000g = 1kg
1000mg = 1g
1000ug = 1mg

1g is a gram. It can also be written as one gramme.

1ug is a microgram. It can also be written as a microgramme. It is abbreviated to 'u' for simplicity, but the actual character is not strictly alphabetical and has a 'tail' on the left hand side of the 'u'.

1 U (or iu) is 1 International Unit. This is the amount of a substance that has an agreed biological effect. Since each substance is different and has different properties and effects, the conversion factor to get from U to ug will vary per sustance. There is no hard and fast rule. It is best to consult the manufacturer's own unit conversion.

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Protein Function and Amino Acid Conversion:



What is an amino acid? It is a molecule consisting of an amine group and a carboxlic acid group. Phenylalanine is shown above an amino acid with an aromatic phenyl group (the carbon 'benzene' ring). Amino acids are the most primary molecular building blocks of complex proteins (in practical terms - without splitting them into individual carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen atoms etc.) Amino acids join together through joining the amino (nitrogen) group on one amino acid molecule with the carboxylic (acidic carbon) group of another amino acid molecule. This is known as an amide bond and is a form of polymerisation. This occurs through RNA or enzyme initiated activity in the body. Amino acids join in this manner to form short peptide chains or longer polypeptide chains. Polypeptides are also known as proteins. A polypeptide chain is shown below.



Clearly there are many different types of amino acid, different in structure, number of carbon atoms, and configuration (isomers, single chain or branch chain (i.e. main chain and branch chain placement and length)). Optical isomers (mirror image molecules with the same number of atoms in them but which are not identical (e.g. a mirror reflection of you), can exist in two forms, 'D' or 'L'. The letter prefixes the amino acid name (e.g. L-Glutamine). 'L' describes the vast majority of amino acids found in proteins and sometimes the L nomenclature is dropped (considered superfluous). The exact structure of an amino acid determines its properties and characteristics, including its hydrophilic or lipophilic properties. Some amino acids and peptides are capable of crossing the blood brain barrier whereas other are not. This is why certain peptides (and 'nano-particles') in certain detoxification products and herbs are ablet o cross the blood brain barrier and provide effective chelation of heavy metals from the brain cells.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_brain_barrier

As well as the huge variety of individual amino acids, there is also a huge variety of protein structures that can be created by them, a little like words that can be created out of letters in the alphabet. Amino acids then are the basic buidling block of life, and without their existence, no (terrestrial carbon-based) life forms could exist.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid

There are number different types of protein in the body, and they are not just used for the making up cell membranes (e.g. to form muscle, skin and the organs), i.e. structural proteins. Cell membranes are made up of lipids as well as protein. This is why it is important that sufficient Essential Fatty Acids and the right ratios, and also quality sources of protein are consumed; and also why it is important to keep these cell membranes free of toxins.

Other uses for proteins in the body include the formation of enzymes (digestive, immune system, anti-inflammatory and detoxification enzymes), hormones (chemicals that allow one cell to communicate to another and control its metabolism), neurotransmitters (chemicals that allow a neuron (in the nervous system) to signal a cell or cells), antibodies, blood transport proteins, etc.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormones

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron

Quoting from Wikipedia regarding the functions of proteins:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein

'Proteins are the chief actors within the cell, said to be carrying out the duties specified by the information encoded in genes. With the exception of certain types of RNA, most other biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act....

The chief characteristic of proteins that allows their diverse set of functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly. The region of the protein responsible for binding another molecule is known as the binding site and is often a depression or "pocket" on the molecular surface. This binding ability is mediated by the tertiary structure of the protein, which defines the binding site pocket, and by the chemical properties of the surrounding amino acids' side chains. Protein binding can be extraordinarily tight and specific...

Proteins can bind to other proteins as well as to small-molecule substrates. When proteins bind specifically to other copies of the same molecule, they can oligomerize to form fibrils; this process occurs often in structural proteins that consist of globular monomers that self-associate to form rigid fibers. Protein-protein interactions also regulate enzymatic activity, control progression through the cell cycle, and allow the assembly of large protein complexes that carry out many closely related reactions with a common biological function. Proteins can also bind to, or even be integrated into, cell membranes. The ability of binding partners to induce conformational changes in proteins allows the construction of enormously complex signaling networks.

The best-known role of proteins in the cell is as enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions. Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one or a few chemical reactions. Enzymes carry out most of the reactions involved in metabolism, as well as manipulating DNA in processes such as DNA replication, DNA repair, and transcription. Some enzymes act on other proteins to add or remove chemical groups in a process known as post-translational modification. About 4,000 reactions are known to be catalyzed by enzymes. The rate acceleration conferred by enzymatic catalysis is often enormous - as much as 1017-fold increase in rate over the uncatalyzed reaction in the case of orotate decarboxylase (78 million years without the enzyme, 18 milliseconds with the enzyme).

The molecules bound and acted upon by enzymes are called substrates. Although enzymes can consist of hundreds of amino acids, it is usually only a small fraction of the residues that come in contact with the substrate, and an even smaller fraction - 3-4 residues on average - that are directly involved in catalysis. The region of the enzyme that binds the substrate and contains the catalytic residues is known as the active site.

Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction. Some proteins, such as insulin, are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant tissues. Others are membrane proteins that act as receptors whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell. Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an effector domain within the cell, which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a conformational change detected by other proteins within the cell.

Antibodies are protein components of adaptive immune system whose main function is to bind antigens, or foreign substances in the body, and target them for destruction. Antibodies can be secreted into the extracellular environment or anchored in the membranes of specialized B cells known as plasma cells. Whereas enzymes are limited in their binding affinity for their substrates by the necessity of conducting their reaction, antibodies have no such constraints. An antibody's binding affinity to its target is extraordinarily high.

Many ligand transport proteins bind particular small biomolecules and transport them to other locations in the body of a multicellular organism. These proteins must have a high binding affinity when their ligand is present in high concentrations, but must also release the ligand when it is present at low concentrations in the target tissues. The canonical example of a ligand-binding protein is haemoglobin, which transports oxygen from the lungs to other organs and tissues in all vertebrates and has close homologs in every biological kingdom.

Transmembrane proteins can also serve as ligand transport proteins that alter the permeability of the cell membrane to small molecules and ions. The membrane alone has a hydrophobic core through which polar or charged molecules cannot diffuse. Membrane proteins contain internal channels that allow such molecules to enter and exit the cell. Many ion channel proteins are specialized to select for only a particular ion; for example, potassium and sodium channels often discriminate for only one of the two ions.

Structural proteins confer stiffness and rigidity to otherwise-fluid biological components. Most structural proteins are fibrous proteins; for example, actin and tubulin are globular and soluble as monomers, but polymerize to form long, stiff fibers that comprise the cytoskeleton, which allows the cell to maintain its shape and size. Collagen and elastin are critical components of connective tissue such as cartilage, and keratin is found in hard or filamentous structures such as hair, nails, feathers, hooves, and some animal shells.

Other proteins that serve structural functions are motor proteins such as myosin, kinesin, and dynein, which are capable of generating mechanical forces. These proteins are crucial for cellular motility of single celled organisms and the sperm of many sexually reproducing multicellular organisms. They also generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles.'

As has been illustrated above, the ability to form proteins is critical to the functioning of the body and life itself. Protein formation is often impaired in CFS cases. Protein formation is itself dependent on many factors, but most importantly, the supply of amino acids into the body. These are supplied by the digestive tract and digestive enzymes and stomach acid, which act to break down the plant and animal proteins in the food that we eat into amino acids, and hopefully allow sufficient quantities to be absorbed into the blood stream for polymerisation and conversion into specific amino acids and peptide chains for various functional proteins and structural in the body. Digestion then is the first step in protein and amino acid conversio.

A blockage or bottleneck in the ability to convert one type of amino acid to another can result in elevated levels of the precursor amino acid and very low levels of the converted amino acid. Elevated levels of the precursor amino acid may well have biochemical effects on the body, and indeed the low levels of the converted amino acid are also likely to have significant effects on a particular process or pathway in the body. Amino acids are converted from one form to another, and joined together to form specific peptides and polypeptides. If one type of amino acid is low, then all downstream amino acids and peptides that rely on this 'precursor' are going to suffer or rather be considerably compromised/slowed down in their synthesis with signficant and specific effects. Digestive impairment can lead to a 'Catch 22' situation (affecting enzyme production and metabolic signalling, which affects digestive capability etc.) unless we do something to reverse this cycle. Clearly this can create quite a complex picture. An example of one such problem is that of methylation and glutathione production, examined in the next section on this page.

The amino acids which are too high or too low can be determined by a variety of methods, either a blood test or a urine test (e.g. Amino Acid Profile). Please see the Identification page for more information. The importance of such tests should not be under-estimated. They may point to what nutritional elements (e.g. minerals or vitamins) are missing from the diet or have been too low for low long, resulting in a severe amino acid imbalance in the body, or which specific amino acids can perhaps be supplemented for a brief period to considerably assist in one's recovery. As discussed on the Digestion page, certain readily assimilable and high quality protein sources may also help in this regard.

Repeated from the sections above (on this page):

A failure to break down proteins properly in the digestive tract and a failure to convert (specific) amino acids properly (in sufficient quantities) clearly has a huge effect on the biochemical and hormonal balance, and functioning and efficiency of many processes in the body.

Specifically relating to nutrient depletion, besides poor digestive function, inefficient amino acid conversion can lead to the wasting of vital amino acids in the kidneys into the urine, for example, Taurine, which is required to effectively transport minerals into the tissues and cells. It is possible to be supplementing, for example, a Potassium chelate, every day, and eat a diet relatively high in Potassium, but have one's cellular levels of Potassium drop. The reasons for this could be the lack of an efficient transport mechanism to get the mineral into one's cells and also excessive stress which can lead to mineral wasting. Studies have shown that taurine levels in vegans are frequently significantly lower than in those eating meat and dairy products. Please see Wikipedia below for some more information on Taurine.

Please note that amino acids can be taken in their acid format, or as amino acid salts of a nutritional metal. For example, if one wishes to take 'butyrate', then one can either take butyric acid or for example calcium and magnesium butyrate. If one takes a chelated mineral supplement (i.e. an amino acid salt), for example, magnesium citrate, then this may result in a large amounts of citrate being consumed. Intake of disproportionately large amounts of certain amino acids may have no ill effect on the amino acid balance and conversion processes that take place in the body. Others however may put the body into imbalance with respect to certain amino acids, and their precursors or the amino acids they are normally converted to. An amino acid analysis should highlight any problems that would be occurring in the body.

Taurine is an amino acid which is synergistic with magnesium delivery to the body's cells. Taurine is an ion and pH buffer in the heart, muscles and central nervous system. It is also a major constituent of bile. It is also a powerful antioxidant and antitoxin, particularly important to the liver and immune system. Taurine is also classified as a 'semi-essential nutrient'. If you are short of taurine (i.e. your urine levels of taurine are very high because your kidneys are 'wasting' it from the body), you will not absorb magnesium properly and you will 'waste' magnesium from the body. This has many adverse effects on the body. Many good magnesium supplements contain Taurine (such as Ultra Muscleze). L-Methionine is a precursor to Taurine which may also be taken to assist in nutrient assimilation. However, no amino acid supplementation should be undertaken without guidance from a qualified practitioner and a urine test (amino acid analysis profile). Taurine is defined below on Wikipedia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine

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Homocysteine Metabolism, Methylation & Glutathione Production:

To understand the importance of the above B-vitamins with regards to methylation, it is important to understand how homocysteine metabolism. Homocysteine is an amino acid produced in the body by the chemical conversion of methionine, a chemical compound regularly consumed in the diet. When methionine-rich foods (e.g. fish) are consumed, the methionine is absorbed into the bloodstream and into cells, where a methyl group (one carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms) is removed to produce the amino acid homocysteine. Methylation is the process of adding a methyl group to an amino acid to synthesize new amino acids that the body requires. The body then adds a methyl group to the homocysteine (using the amino acid Methionine Synthase - of which methyl B12 is a co-factor) to produce two chemicals, S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe), and Glutathione. SAMe is a useful natural antidepressant, combats arthritis and is excellent at lowering homocysteine levels. As SAMe levels increase, the body methylates Homocysteine to produce Glutathione. Glutathione is the body's greatest anti-ageing agent which is also used in detoxification.

Sufficient availability of folates, B6 and B12 are very important in the regulation of homocysteine in the body. Vitamin 12 helps to protect nerve tissue and brain cells, and also helps to promote better sleep. It also helps to protect the eye function against toxicity caused by excess glutamate.Chronic deficiencies in the above B-vitamins (which affects many sufferers of CFS or related conditions) often results in the inability to methylate properly and so too high Homocysteine levels and too low Glutathione levels. There are other causes of high Homocysteine levels, for example, smoking, recreational drug use, chronic tobacco use, high alcohol consumption, reaching post-menopause, older age, post-heart attack or stroke, excessive niacin consumption (B3) and kidney failure.

A low glutathione level has been linked to an increased risk of death from all common causes. High levels of homocysteine in the human body increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (i.e. strokes and heart attacks), pregnancy complications, the onset of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease, Diabetes and Osteoporosis.

Some people ask whether one can die of CFS. Well, the answer is indirectly, yes. CFS often puts patients into the 'high risk' category of cardiovascular disease, and whilst it may not be a factor in the short term, if untreated, may well come into play in the long term. In addition, many of the factors that affect CFS patients are common to cancer patients, although BlackSpy is not going to make any statement or direct connection between the development of cancer and CFS pre-disposing factors. Suicide rates are also much higher in CFS sufferers and those suffering from related conditions than in the rest of the population. Perhaps if these poor victims were properly informed about their conditions and sensible treatments by the medical authorities and media, then these (often assisted) suicides would not occur. In short, the key to a long healthy life is keep the homocysteine level down and the glutathione level up (in other words, to ensure that the body has sufficient B-vitamins and can methylate effectively).

The following web sites contain basic summary information about homocysteine metabolism.

www.homocysteine.net/biochemistry.asp?lang=EN

www.gethsmart.com

www.lifeextensionvitamins.com/homred.html

A good overview of treating methylation blockage can found be on the research pages of PhoenixCFS. It is worth reviewing the research pages on Phoenix-cfs.org in general also on this subject, cross referencing the Liver Function section on the Toxicity page on Health-Spy also.

http://phoenix-cfs.org/GSH%20Methylation%20Treatment%20Konynenburg.htm

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The Role of Antioxidants:

Free radicals are those particles and molecules that cause damage to the body's cells and essential fatty acids (e.g. EPA) by their oxidising ability. Oxidative damage is often associated with premature ageing and biochemical and DNA damage. Some examples of oxidative damage to cells can be found on the Identification page. Oxidative stress may not be a primarly cause of CFS or related conditions in most sufferers, but it is often a contributary factor. Oxidative damage is often much higher in those suffering from impaired liver function, heavy metal toxicity or who are detoxifying the body (releasing heavy metals from the tissues).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant#Oxidative_stress_in_disease

'Oxidative stress is thought to contribute to the development of a wide range of diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, the pathologies caused by diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and neurodegeneration in motor neurone diseases. In many of these cases, it is unclear if oxidants trigger the disease, or if they are produced as a consequence of the disease and cause the disease symptoms...The brain is uniquely vulnerable to oxidative injury, due to its high metabolic rate and elevated levels of polyunsaturated lipids, the target of lipid peroxidation. Consequently, antioxidants are commonly used as medications to treat various forms of brain injury.'

Free radicals damage the mitochondria (that produce the body's energy). Free radical damage shorts the life of our bodies cells and contributes to premature ageing. The number of times our somatic cells can replicate or divide are fixed or rather limited. The protective telomeres present at the end of chromosomes become shorter each time a cell divides. The telomeres maintain the viability of body/somatic cells. When they are too short they can no longer protect the chromosomes or provide the cell with the ability to divide. When the telomeres of the chromosomes that make up a cell are lost, the cell undergoes apoptosis or perish. Thus, increasing the length of the life of each cell prior to division (by consuming enough antioxidants and minimising the number of oxidants consumed/breathed in) contributes to increasing one's overall life expectancy and delays the onset of ageing.

Indeed, oxidative stress seen in various diseases is probably itself a symptom of poor liver function. It is likely that impaired liver function is in fact closely associated with these diseases.

Dr Ray D. Strand's web site below contains articles on oxidative stress. Below is also a link to an article about oxidative stress and CFS and FMS.

www.bionutrition.org/default.asp

Oxidative Stress and CFS and FMS pdf file

Oxidative stress should be obvious from a variety of different blood tests and blood analyses, for example, blood serum vitamin levels (A, C, E), live blood microscopy, and many others. For more information on Oxidative Stress and their effect on blood cells, please see the Identification page.

Dr Martin Pall has theorised that triggers of CFS and Fibromyalgia such as viral and bacterial infections (amongst others) actually cause an increase in Nitric Oxide levels, greatly increasing the oxidative stress on the body and worsening symptoms, in a body that may well have been under considerable oxidative stress anyway because of dietary, lifestyle and other environmental causes. Please see the Viri page for more information.

Free radicals come from a wide variety of sources, from pollution in the air we breathe, heavy metals (which also multiply the numbers of free radicals), air molecules ionised by radiation, smoke (cigarettes, drugs or fires), chlorine in tap water, but mainly our diet. The biggest source of ingested free radicals is probably fried foods and heated cooking oils, e.g. potato crisps/chips, french fries, onion rings etc.

It should be noted that most tap water is not neutral in pH. BlackSpy's local tap water is between 6.25 and 6.50, i.e. slightly acidic, on account of the chlorine that is added to it. Chlorine is an anti-microbial agent that kills off bacteria and other microbes that might cause illness and infection otherwise. It achieves this because it is an oxidising agent. When Chlorine gas dissolves in water, it produces hydrochloric acid and hydrochlorous acid (the oxidising agent). This oxidising power is taken into the body and can add to the free radical burden of the body as well as lowering one's pH. Pure water has a pH of 7. Some water authorities also add Fluoride to water, as described above, to 'help with tooth decay'. As already mentioned, it is possible to remove Fluoride and Chlorine from tap water as well as other potential contaminants and heavy metals, using a sophisticated water purification and ionisation system. This can elevate the pH from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline, i.e. above pH 7. Please see the Acidosis page for more information.

As well as from external sources, free radicals also derive from the partial detoxification products produced in the liver, as toxins are processed prior to excretion. As oxygen and other compounds are broken down to be utilised by the body (as part of metabolism), certain molecules become unbalanced, creating free radicals or oxidants. When free radicals or oxidants are produced in excess, cells may suffer from oxidative damage. One of the most harmful of these free radicals is the anion Superoxide.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superoxide

Superoxide is the anion O2-, i.e. the dioxygen O2 or O=O molecule with an additional electron, different from the Oxygen anion O--. It is important as the product of the one-electron reduction of dioxygen, which occurs widely in nature. With one unpaired electron, the superoxide ion is a free radical, and, like dioxygen, it is paramagnetic.



It should be noted that some treatments for dysbiosis include hydrogen peroxide and ozone, both of which are powerful oxidising agents. Of course, they may well oxidise harmful bacteria and yeasts etc., but they are not selective in what they oxidise and will cause oxidative damage/stress to everything they come into contact to varying extents. If consumed orally, then they will have a detrimental effect on one's probiotic gut flora and also may well oxidise some of the tissues as well. Acidophilus bacteria do produce hydrogen peroxide, but in very small quantities and locally within the colon.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant

Antioxidants are molecules that protect the body against oxidative damage, which are themselves oxidised rather than bodily tissues being oxidised. They also help to reduce the build up of atherosclerotic plaque in the arteries and help to protect the liver. A lack of antioxidants as described above will result in an increased level of oxidative damage, premature ageing and put an excessive stress on the liver.

Antioxidants protect the cells from damage from free radicals or oxidising agents and particles. Antioxidants in general, and in particular the Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) enzyme (discussed below) have the ability to break down Superoxide. They also help to reduce plaque that builds up inside our artery walls from high LDL cholesterol blood levels. Some people have reported huge life changing benefits from consuming high levels of antioxidants (e.g. drinking Xango juice), but it is likely that such individuals were simply suffering from excessive free radicals and not more complex biochemical problems. In general terms, the capacity to respond to oxidative stress has the potential to positively impact energy levels, vitality, health and the ability to cope with the physical and psychological stresses of modern life.

www.netdoctor.co.uk/focus/nutrition/facts/oxidative_stress/oxidativestress.htm

Sources of external antioxidants include a variety of nutrients such as vitamins A, C and E, MSM, NAC, Selenium, Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Co-Enzyme Q-10, ALA (the Omega 3 fatty acid), and from a variety of fresh fruit and vegetables, particularly those rich in colour (and also olives or olive oil). A variety of plants and herbs contains high levels of antioxidants, for example, grape seed extract, sprouted broccoli seeds, acai berries (very rich in vitamin C - can be bought also in powder form), green superfood powder mixtures (often containing sprouted broccoli and other spouted vegetables, cereal grasses, acai berries and algae etc.), ginkgo biloba, milk thistle (silymarin), yerba mate tea, sprouted broccoli seed (powder), blue berries (e.g. Ariona berries (Oki fruit drink); or Blue Lighting organic blue berry powder mixture etc.), melon juice, mangosteen juice, noni jiuce, green tea and white tea (both containing catechins - a type of tannin), red wine (also containing alcohol!) and Cocoa (aka Cacoa) beans (flavonols) etc. Yerba mate tea contains more antioxidants than white tea which itself contains more antioxidants than green tea. All three are however excellent sources of antioxidants. Plant source antioxidants capsules are available, for example, by Nutri. Ground Flax Seed, for example, contains 21% ALA.

www.uncleharrys.com/infobase/product/cacao_beans.php

It should be noted that whilst cocoa beans are high in flavonols, they also contain high levels of theobromine/caffeine which is not ideal; and commercial chocolate also contains large amounts of sugar - milk chocolate hardly containing any cacoa at all). Cocoa beans will be higher in flavonols than roasted cocoa powder and indeed processed chocolates, as roasting in air will tend to oxidise antioxidants.

www.foodproductdesign.com/articles/465/465_0705INI.html

'Research on the role of phytonutrients gives considerable attention to the health contributions of cocoa and chocolate. Polyphenolics, particularly the antioxidant flavonoids that contribute to the health benefits of wine, coffee and tea also occur in significant, but inconsistent, levels in cocoa and chocolate. The flavonoid antioxidants are concentrated in the solids of the cocoa press cake rather than the cocoa butter. Oxidation of the flavonoids, some of which contribute to flavor, commences when the bean is removed from the seedpod and continues during roasting.'

Cocoa beans, cocoa powder and chocolate are also acidic, with a pH between 5 and 6, except for chocolate types found in baked goods that are pH adjusted so as not to interfere with the leavening process. Please see the Acidosis page for more information.

The benefits of controlling flavonoid oxidation have inspired some manufacturers to patent methods for selecting and protecting polyphenols and increasing their nutrient availability. Ironically, at the end of the 19th Century and start of the 20th Century, the type of tea most commonly consumed in the UK was green tea. However, because of heavy advertising campaigns by manufacturers of black tea, the Edwardian population gradually shifted over to the consumption of black tea. This was not because of the taste, but because some disreputable tea firms were taking used green tea leaves, drying them out, and reselling them. Drinking 'black tea' was the 'only' way to be sure that you weren't drinking recycled tea leaves. And so black tea (much lower in antioxidants and higher in caffeine) predominated.

Vitamin C has been shown to protect the mitochondria inside cells from oxidative damage, and has even been shown to interfere with chemotherpay cancer treatment (which works on the basis of in relative terms indiscriminately oxidising/poisoning the body' cells, including the cancer cells). Many cancer treatments involve the use of antioxidants.

www.naturalnews.com/024380.html

The most powerful antioxidants are the body's own internally produced antioxidants, known as Primary Antioxidants, which target specific types of oxidative threats in the body, and are the most important down-regulators of oxidative stress in the body. They help to support proper liver function and the immune system. These Primary Antioxidants are the four in the list below. The most important of these are SOD, Catalase and Gpx. They are enzymes that break down oxidants, i.e. antioxidant enzymes. Melatonin is a antioxidant hormone and is also involved in the Circadian Rhythm (awake/sleep cycle).

The external antioxidants (i.e. those consumed and in some cases injected (e.g. Glutathione)), known as Secondary Antioxidants, are relatively less potent in their antioxidant capacity and are antioxidant chemicals. Perhaps the most effective approach is to prime the body to produce its own extra strength internal (primary) antioxidants, including SOD, Catalase and Gpx. These antioxidants provide the primary and most important level of defence against oxidative stress and free radical damage. Of course, a healthy diet and in particular one that is rich in Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids and other nutritious foods sources, with perhaps moderate amounts of green tea and algae, will also be high in antioxidants anyway. It is generally good practice to eat a diet rich in antioxidants and to take additional antioxidant supplement of one form or another.

In general terms, Primary* and Secondary Antioxidants are listed in decreasing order of potency below.

• Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)*


• Catalase*


• Glutathione Peroxidase (Gpx)*


• Melatonin*


• Glutathione, CoQ10


• Carotenoids, Vitamin E


• Flavonoids, Vitamins A and C


• Minerals, Proteins

SOD is in itself not an antioxidant, but an enzyme that breaks down Superoxide. Certain nutritional elements (i.e. those metals described above) make up an essential part of the SOD molecule and sufficient levels are essential in those with high levels of oxidative stress or impaired liver function (or indeed those embarking on a detoxification programme). See also the section on liver function on the toxicity page for more information.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant#Superoxide_dismutase.2C_catalase_and_peroxiredoxins

'Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are a class of closely related enzymes that catalyse the breakdown of the superoxide anion into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. SOD enzymes are present in almost all aerobic cells and in extracellular fluids. Superoxide dismutase enzymes contain metal ion cofactors that, depending on the isozyme, can be copper, zinc, manganese or iron. In humans, the copper/zinc SOD is present in the cytosol, while manganese SOD is present in the mitochondrion. There also exists a third form of SOD in extracellular fluids, which contains copper and zinc in its active sites. The mitochondrial isozyme seems to be the most biologically important of these three, since mice lacking this enzyme die soon after birth. In contrast, the mice lacking copper/zinc SOD are viable but have lowered fertility, while mice without the extracellular SOD have minimal defects. In plants, SOD isozymes are present in the cytosol and mitochondria, with an iron SOD found in chloroplasts that is absent from vertebrates and yeast.'

Scientific studies carried out during the last decade have shown that oxidative stress is implicated in cell damage. SOD has been shown to dramatically protect against cellular oxidative stress damage in humans. Results include:
- Supporting significantly lower cellular DNA damage when exposed to intensive oxidative stress.
- Supporting skin health against photo-oxidation.
- Priming the natural internal antioxidants capacities of SOD, Catalaseand Gpx.

Pure-XP GliSODin is an example of a vegetarian form of SOD (based on a Melon juice extract) and according to manufacturer claims is not broken down in the stomach like other forms of internal antioxidants like SOD and Glutathione. Would it be cheaper to eat melons regularly?

www.glisodin.com

Catalase is an enzyme that breaks down Hydrogen Peroxide into water and oxygen.

Glutathione peroxidase (Gpx) is the general name of an enzyme family with peroxidase activity whose main biological role is to protect the organism from oxidative damage. The biochemical function of glutathione peroxidase is to reduce lipid hydroperoxides to their corresponding alcohols and to reduce free hydrogen peroxide to water.

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Fatty Acid Imbalances:

General

A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), and is either saturated or unsaturated. Depending on the context, fatty acids may be assumed to have at least 8 carbon atoms, e.g., caprylic acid (octanoic acid). Most of the natural fatty acids have an even number of carbon atoms, because their biosynthesis involves acetate which has two carbon atoms. Industrially, fatty acids are produced by the hydrolysis of the ester linkages in a fat or biological oil (both of which are triglycerides), with the removal of glycerol.

Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, cannot be synthesised by the body, and must be obtained directly from food sources, and help to raise our good cholesterol levels in the body (High Density Lipoprotein). These include Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids, which are polyunsaturated fats. Omega 7 and Omega 9 fatty acids are non-essential fatty acids, as they can be synthesised by the body from starches and sugars. Omega 7 and 9 fatty acids are mono-unsaturated fats and specific saturated fats.

As a general rule, polyunsatured fatty acids are powerful anti-oxidants and are linked with the reduction of cancer risk and even successful cancer treatment.

A saturated fat is one whose carbon chain is fully populated with hydrogen atoms and contains only single bonds, whereas an unsaturated fat has a carbon chain not fully populated with hydrogen atoms and contains one or more double bonds.

The body requires fats of the correct type and ratio for a variety of bodily functions and to maintain health. Essential fatty acids play an important part in cell membrane and brain composition. The consumption of sufficient essential fatty acids is necessary for efficient energy production, digestive function, good joint health, cell membrane function and fluidity, oxgen permeability and immune system functioning. Too many long chain saturated fats and trans fats in one's diet can result in displacement in cell membranes and brain tissue, altering the body's biochemistry and biochemical efficiency. Fatty acid imbalances may results in lower brain functioning (a gluey brain with too many long chain, rogue fats), fatigue, an impaired immune system, impaired mitochondrial (energy production) function, impaired cell membrane function (i.e. substitution of essential fatty acids with long chain fatty acids), impaired joint mobility, an impaired digestive system, a build up of atherosclerotic plaque in the arteries close to the heart, increased 'bad' cholesterol levels, and an increased cancer and heart disease risk.

It was formerly believed in the 1970s and 1980s that a low fat diet was the healthiest, and that keeping a low fat intake (simply avoiding fatty foods and instead eating low fat products) would help to prevent heart disease and reduce cholesterol levels. Unfortunately the media has over the last 30 years created the illusion that all fats are bad for you and is slowly starting to tell the real story. The vast majority of the population of the UK and many other industrialised countries consume too many 'bad' fats, those that are harmful to health and which increase blood cholesterol levels, but do not consume enough 'good' fats. Sufferers of depression in many cases find that simply changing their diet and consuming more 'good' fats, that they feel instantly better, and are cured in a matter of weeks! Fatty acid imbalances are often particularly marked in sufferers of CFS or related conditions. Please read on to find out more about 'good' and 'bad' fats. However, it has been found in studies that cholesterol levels and atherosclerotic plaque do not tend to decrease in those with low total fat diets, but stay the same.



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Omega 3

Omega 3 (n3 or w-3) fatty acids are polyunsaturated fats and include EPA (EicosoPentaenoic Acid), DHA (DocosaHexaenoic Acid) and ALA (Alpha-Linolenic Acid). EPA and DHA are fish derived and ALA is plant derived. Omega 3 oils are destroyed by heat and oxidation whereby they turn into harmful trans fats. Oils high in Omega 3 should therefore be consumed cold and not used for cooking. They should be kept in dark bottles, and stored long term in the refrigerator or freezer. This includes ground flax seeds. This is why a product such as Udo's Choice Oil Blend should be kept in the fridge too (see below).

Omega 3 fatty acids come from a variety of food sources, such as marine foods and oily fish (and fish oils) (high levels of EPA and DHA), ground flaxseed/linseed, oils (flaxseed/linseed oil is most potent vegetable source, also walnut oil, black currant oil, canola oil, pumpkin seed oil, soybean oil, wheat germ oil, macadamia nut oil - all sources of ALA), green leafy vegetables (such as lettuce, kale, purslane, spinach, broccoli, etc.), legumes (such as kidney beans, pinto beans, lima beans, mung beans, soya beans, split peas etc. - ALA), grass-fed beef, colostrum (DHA), and certain fruits such as citrus fruits, cherries and melons.

For example, Linusit Organic Linusprout (ground sprouted flaxseed) contains:

- 25% ALA (n3)
- 5% LA (n6)
- 21% Dietary Fibre
- 6% Monosaturated Fat (n9)
- 3% Saturated Fat
- 37% Carbohydrate
- 25% Protein

It should be noted that the human conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is often quite slow and inefficient. In most cases, 15% of ALA converts to EPA and sometimes no ALA actually converts to DHA. The conversion may be inhibited by by too high an intake of Omega 6 fatty acids (i.e. LA containing foods - see below), trans fats such as deep fried foods, fast foods and baked goods, alcohol intake, and specific health conditions, and mineral and vitamin deficiencies (Vitamins B3, B6 and C, and zinc and magnesium). Vegetarians and vegans must therefore be especially careful in their diet. Fish are however a direct source of EPA and DHA. It is therefore recommended that fish based products are one's main source of Omega 3 fatty acids (ideally). Roughly 8% of the mass of the brain is made up of DHA. DHA availability is especially important in growing babies and children.

When taking EPA/DHA supplements, one may want to ascertain what the Dioxin and PCB toxin levels are, as these may be present in significant levels in certain fish oil supplements.

www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/webpage/70427

There is some recent evidence to suggest that the bodys assimilation of EPA is inhibited when taken simultaneously with DHA (i.e. in fish oil). The research points to higher ratios of EPA to DHA result in much better the assimilation. Some special Omega 3 supplements (EPA is chemically isolated from the fish oil) contain only EPA and no DHA, and may be better than regular fish oil based supplements. In addition, they reduce the expose to the individual of excessive Vitamin A levels that can result from fish oil consumption (which is debated as to whether it is indeed harmful). Chris Masterjohn argues that high Vitamin A levels in Cod Liver Oil are no problem as they occur in a natural form (not artificially synthesized form) and are balanced with vitamins D and K.

www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Benefit-Of-Cod-Liver-Oil.html

DHA can be created from EPA as and when required by the body. Conversion from DHA back to EPA is however very difficult, but if sufficient EPA is consumed in the diet, then this is not a problem. An example of such a supplement is Igennus' VegEPA (which has a slightly misleading name because it is based on fish oil - perhaps the 'Veg' part refers to the small amount of Evening Primrose Oil that is added! Vegetarians take note! Talk about marketing people getting carried away.)

For those who do not regularly take fish oil, DHA or EPA supplements, or have not taken them for some weeks (e.g. if you took a break and switched to an ALA supplement (e.g. ground flaxseed) for a while), you may find that your stomach finds it a handful for a few days or up to a week, until it adjusts. This is certainly BlackSpy's experience, but of course may vary according to the individual.

Health Industry 'experts' have stated that a daily of intake of 500mg of either DHA or EPA (fish source Omega 3) is required (through food or supplementation) to ensure optimal health. ALA (plant sourced Omega 3) has less proven health benefits, although this may be hotly debated by vegans.

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Omega 6

Omega 6 (n6 or w-6) fatty acids are also polyunsaturated fats. The most beneficial of the omega-6 fatty acids are those that contain Linoleic Acid (LA). These are converted in the body to Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA), another Omega 6 fatty acid. GLA and Arachidonic acid (AA), the third type of Omega 6 fatty acid, are ultimately to prostaglandins, which are hormone-like molecules that help regulate inflammation and blood pressure, as well as kidney, gastrointestinal, and heart functions, and hromboxanes, which are involved in platelet aggregation and blood clotting. Omega 6 fatty acids can tolerate some heat, but if overheated will turn into harmful trans fats (i.e. avoid roasting nuts mentioned below, e.g. peanut butter, or overheating groundnut oil in the pan etc.; or frying eggs; or frying with vegetable oils).

Good dietary sources of omega-6 fatty acids include cereals (LA), eggs (AA), peanuts, specific grains, nuts and seeds and their respective oils (i.e. groundnut/peanut, safflower, sunflower, corn, sesame seed, pumpkin, soya bean, walnut, wheatgerm, grape seed, pistachio nut, pecan nut, brazil nut, almond and macadamia nut - LA), Evening Primrose Oil (aka EPO) and starflower/borage oil (both contain LA and GLA), poultry, most vegetable oils (LA), colostrum (GLA), whole-grain breads (LA), baked goods (LA), algae (such as Chlorella and Spirulina - GLA) and margarine (LA). Please note that evening primrose oil and nuts contain abundant amounts of Vitamin E, so high dosages of EPO may result in a high Vitamin E intake.

Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) is a conjugated form (an isomer) of linoleic acid, normally produced from modified Safflower oil. CLA aids in muscle deposition as opposed to fat deposition (reducing body fat and increasing lean muscle). CLA inhibits the enzyme that transports fat from the blood to fat cells. CLA may assist in lowering LDL cholesterol levels. Articles relating specifically to CLA can be found at the links below. CLA is sold as a weight control supplement. Testing on mice suggest that high intake of CLA may result in heart disease, but research is not conclusive in humans.

http://www.ironmagazine.com/review9.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_linoleic_acid

Research shows that grass-fed animal meat products are higher in Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) than the grain and soya bean fed counterparts. Below is a relevant article from Weston A. Price Foundation's web site.

www.westonaprice.org/farming/splendor.html

www.seedsofhealth.co.uk/articles/healthy_beef.shtml

WhiteSpy is a major proponent of grass fed dairy and meat products.

With most people, getting enough Omega 6 fatty acids (in the form of LA) is not a problem, rather getting enough Omega 3 oils is more critical (as is illustrated futher below). Most Omega 6 fatty acids are consumed in the LA form, rather than GLA. If the vegetable and nut (oils) consumed are heated/baked/fried, then it is likely that much of the LA content may be chemically altered to trans fat. GLA may be hard for the body to produce from LA, and so GLA supplementation may be a good idea in certain individuals, even if LA consumption is high or 'sufficient'. If one is supplementing Omega 6, then it is probably much better to take a GLA supplement rather than one just containing LA.

Many beneficial oils such as black currant seed oil, borage oil, evening primrose oil contain GLA (Omega 6) as well as Omega 3 oils. Rarely does not obtain exclusively Omega 3 from any one source, but a mixture of Omega 3, 6 and 9 and other saturated fats. Please note that some of these Omega 6 sources also contain harmful trans fats, e.g. margarine (see below).

Somewhat confusingly, the term Linolenic Acid is used to describe both Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA), an Omega 6 fatty acid, and also Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA), an Omega 3 fatty acid. On this page, we refer to the specific types of Linolenic Acid.

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Omega 7

Omega 7 fatty acid, or Palmitoleic Acid, is a monounsaturated fatty acid and is one of the main types of oil produced by skin glands. Omega 7 does not need to be supplemented and can be produced from starches and sugars. Omega 7 and 9 fatty acids are usually found in the same food sources (see below).

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Omega 9

Omega 9 fatty acid, or Oleic Acid, is a monounsaturated fatty acid. Omega 7 does not need to be supplemented and can be produced from starches and sugars. It is the most abundant fatty acid found in nature and the main type of oil produced by skin glands. Sources of Omega 7 and 9 fatty acids include hazelnuts (78%), olive oil (72%), almonds (70%), canola oil (58%), avocado fruit (50%), macadamia nuts (45%), apricot seeds (35%), almonds (33%), sunflower oil (20%) and coconut oil (8%). Cocoa butter often contains oleic acid. Saturated fats are used mainly for energy production. Olive oil contains high amounts of Vitamin E, and so a large intake of olive oil may result in an elevated Vitamin E intake.

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Saturated Fats

Long-chain saturated fats come from both plant and animal sources and include fatty acids such as lauric acid (found in coconut oil), acetic acid (found in vinegar), stearic acid and palmitic acid. Animal sources probably make up the majority of sources of saturated fat for most people. Stearic acid is nature's most common long-chain fatty acid, and is a saturated fat that can be converted to oleic acid (Omega 9) which is monounsaturated. Palmitic acid constitutes 20-30% of most animal fats and is a major constituent of many vegetable oils (35-40% of palm oil). Saturated fats tend a high melting temperature and tend to be hard at room temperature, although some sources harden only at refrigeration temperature. Saturated fats are non-essential fatty acids and can be manufactured form monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats in the body. Long chain saturated fats from food are only used for energy production and have no other nutritional purpose.

Animal sources of saturated fats included meat (especially red meats), seafood, whole-milk dairy products (cheese, milk, butter, yoghurt, ice cream etc.) poultry skin and egg yolks. Plant sources include coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, peanut (groundnut) oil and olive oil.

Palm kernel oil, palm oil and coconut oil are regarded as 'good' sources of saturated fats, because they are medium chain saturated fats (MCFA - medium chain fatty acids) and are metabolised differently in the body to long chain saturated fats (LCFA - long chain fatty acids). The majority of plant sources of saturated fats tend to be long chain fatty acids however. MCFA do not have the same properties as long chain saturated fats. MCFA are very different from LCFA. They do not have a negative effect on cholesterol and help to protect against heart disease. MCFA help to lower the risk of both atherosclerosis and heart disease. They also help to boost the immune system. It is primarily due to the MCFA in coconut oil that makes it so special and so beneficial. The MCFA in organic virgin coconut oil, for example, i.e. oleic acid (omega 9), lauric acid (saturated), capric acid (saturated), caprylic acid (saturated), also have antimicrobial and anti-viral properties (and is even used in assist in AIDS patients).

www.coconutresearchcenter.com

http://www.alternative-healthzine.com/html/0108_2.html

www.coconut-connections.com/research.htm

http://products.mercola.com/coconut-oil

www.westonaprice.org/knowyourfats/index.html

Olive oil also has antimicrobial qualities, but to a lesser extent. Olive oil does contain some trans fats (although a very small proportion), and is not ideal, whereas Coconut Oil does not. Coconut oil is made up of medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and is very heat resistance, and ideal for cooking. Olive Oil contains some polyunsaturated fat and is not so ideally suited for cooking.

Bear in mind that excessive oil consumption puts a heavy burden on the liver and gallbladder. 'Bad' saturated fats are found in grain-fed animal produced butter, margarine and meats (especially red meats).

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Trans Fats

A trans fatty acid (often abbreviated to trans fat) is an unsaturated fatty acid molecule that contains a trans double bond between carbon atoms, which makes the molecule less kinked compared to fatty acids with cis double bonds. Transfats have no nutritional benefit but conversely are associated with a number of health risks.

The majority of trans fats in our diet are artificially produced, formed when food manufacturers turn liquid oils into solid fats like hard margarine (i.e. hydrogenated vegetable based products). The harder the fat at room temperature, the higher the level of hydrogenation (and higher the amount of trans fats). Artificially producted trans fats include hydrogenated vegetable oils and margarine are often used in baked goods and fried fast foods. French fries or chips (as the Brits call them), or onion rings, tend to be cooked in hydrogenated vegetable oil. They typically contain up to 45% of their total fat content as trans fats. Bread and other baked products are usually produced with hydrogenated vegetable oils. Baked goods that are not made with trans fats are available if you look, but the vast majority aren't and are best avoided entirely.

Trans fats are also formed when sources of Omega 3 and 6 are heated, such as many vegetables oils (like sunflower) during frying and deep frying (as described above). Those take away food stores that use vegetable oil for frying or cooking (e.g. fish and chips, curry houses, etc.) are not a healthy alternative! Ironically, the consumption of cold pressed, unheated nut and vegetable oils is actually quite healthy as they are a good source of Omega 6 fatty acids. However, when used in cooking, they become high in trans fats and extremely unhealthy.

A small amount of trans fat (typically 2-5% of total fat content) is found naturally, primarily in dairy products, some meat, and other animal-based foods. Virtually all processed food and ready meals contain trans fats. When choosing the latter, try to find the product with hydrogenated fat or oil as low down on the ingredients list as possible. Avoid eating fried food when in restaurants as they often use partially hydrogenated vegetable oil in their fryers. Or ask what kind of oil they use.

Trans fats are defined on Wikipedia at the link below.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfats

Trans fats, like saturated fats, tend to have a high melting point (M.P.) and are usually solid at room temperature (e.g. certain cooking oils are often thicker after heating and subsequent cooling).

Trans fats and 'bad' saturated fats should be avoided as much as possible. They are a major contributor to atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease, and tend to decrease good cholesterol (High Density Lipoprotein - HDL) levels, whilst increasing bad cholesterol (Low Density Lipoprotein - LDL) levels. See the Cholesterol section below for more information.

Below is an article on Dr Mercola's web site about trans fats and how to avoid them.

www.mercola.com/2003/jul/19/trans_fat.htm

Below is a general overview of trans fats and cholesterol.

www.webmd.com/content/article/72/81813.htm

There is more information and discussion about trans fat content in our diet on the digestion page in the Processed Foods section.

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Importance of correct Omega 6 to Omega 3 Ratio

Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids compete for usage in the body. This is why it is important to consume them in the correct ratio. The optimum ratio is somewhere between 1:1 and 1:4 of Omega 3 to Omega 6. Some scientists argue that a 1:4 ratio is optimal for absorption of essential fatty acids. It is likely the exact ratio that is required perhaps depends on the individual. BlackSpy has personally found 1:4 best, restoring EFA levels to normal, when they were previously deficient. Historically speaking, mankind has survived on a 1:1 ratio for tens of thousands of years. In most modern western diets, full of fried foods, high grain cotent and processed foods, the ratio is often somewhere in the region of 1:10 to 1:50. The high Omega 6 levels compared to Omega 3 are usually however based on LA consumption, and not GLA consumption, the latter being a probably much superior type of Omega 6.

Oils such as corn oil, sunflower oil etc are usually low in omega-3s, but contain significant amounts of Omega 6 oils and are most commonly used in cooking. An excess of Omega 6 fatty acids can have a serious detrimental effect on one's health. When there is a shortage of Omega 3 and 6 oils in the body, the human body compensates by producing more Omega 9 oils. This will over a period of time however be detrimental to your health. The correct ratio of Omega 3 to 6 oils will help to reduce the aches and pains of rheumatoid arthritis, combat free radical damage, reduce the symptoms of eczema and psoriasis, clear up acne and rosacea, relieve the discomforts of PMS, endometriosis, and fibrocystic breasts, improve digestion, regulate the liver, kidneys and endocrine system, improve the rate of tissue healing, increase muscle stamina, improve brain functioning, facilitate weight reduction, boost the immune system and prevent and improve diabetic neuropathy.

BlackSpy himself was taking very large amounts of Omega 3, mainly in the form ALA, as well as Omega 6 in the form of GLA, and despite having a 1:1 ratio, found that his Omega 3 and 6 levels, especially 3, were dropping and not going up, and that the EFAs were simply not being absorbed effectively. This may be on account of the body's inability to convert ALA effectively when mitochondrial function is down, or it may be on account of the overly aggressive ratio. Probably a bit of both. When BlackSpy changed the ratio to 1:4 and took mainly EPA instead of ALA, the Omega 3 levels normalised again. BlackSpy therefore can only really recommend a ratio of 1:4 to other people, and preferably a DHA or EPA source of Omega 3.

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Cholesterol

There are two main types of cholesterol, low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

LDL carries cholesterol from the liver to the rest of the body. When there is too much LDL cholesterol in the blood, it can be deposited on the walls of the coronary arteries. This is why LDL cholesterol is often referred to as 'bad' cholesterol. LDL is a wax-like substance.

HDL carries cholesterol from the blood back to the liver, which processes the cholesterol for elimination from the body. HDL decreases the likelihood that excess cholesterol in the blood will be deposited in the coronary arteries. It also helps to remove LDL plaque that has been desposited from the artery walls. This is why HDL cholesterol is often referred to as 'good' cholesterol.

Cholesterol plays a vital role in the body, and is involved in the formation of cell membranes, certain hormones and vitamin D. Clearly the body requires both LDL and HDL but in the right proportions and at the right levels.

In general, 25% of the (LDL) cholesterol in our blood comes from our diet. LDL cholesterol is found solely in animal products (meat and dairy). The other 75% of our blood's cholesterol is manufactured in our liver. The biggest influence on blood cholesterol levels is the type and mix of fats in our diet. Studies have also shown that in most people tested, an increase in cholesterol intake does not necessarily equate to any elevated levels of blood cholesterol levels (e.g. eating a couple of eggs per week).

As a general rule, (long chain) saturated fats (mainly animal fats) raise blood cholesterol levels more than dietary cholesterol as they boost levels of HLD AND LDL. The overall effect of boosting both is however negative.

Trans fats (mainly hydrogenated vegetable oils) greatly increase the amount of LDL in our blood (and decrease the amount of HDL), much more than actual consumption of cholesterol itself, and excessive consumption is a major contributor to heart disease and the lining of atherosclerotic plaque in our arteries. Trans fats are much worse for cholesterol levels than saturated fats. They also cause inflammation - an overactivity of the immune system that has been implicated in heart disease, strokes, diabetes and other chronic conditions. Whilst 'bad' saturated fats should be limited, trans fats should be eliminated as much as possible.

Mono-unsaturated (Omega 9 fatty acids) and poly-unsaturated fats (Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids) greatly increase the amount HDL in our blood (and decrease the amount of LDL), thereby actively removing the atherosclerotic plaque from our arteries.

In addition, Phosphatidyl Choline (from soya lecithin) helps to reduce LDL levels and increase HDL levels in our blood. Antioxidants also play an important part in removing atherosclerotic plaque from the arteries. Soluble fibre, e.g. oats, also helps to reduce cholesterol levels by reducing the amount of saturated fats that are absorbed through the digestive system (as they tend to stick to the fibre).

Garlic has also been shown to raise HDL levels in the blood.

Studies show that cholesterol levels and atherosclerotic plaque do not tend to decrease in those with low total fat diets (low total fat), but stay the same. This is because of the lack of EFAs in low total fat diets.

Plant sterols are a fashionable supplement, found in products such as Benecol and Flora pro-activ, and act to limit the uptake of dietary cholesterol (that which is consumed). However, as stated above, studies show that 75% of blood cholesterol is generated in the liver from trans fats and long chain saturated fats, and only 25% derives directly from cholesterol in the diet. In addition, a moderate increase in intake of dietary cholesterol does not usually have a significant effect on cholesterol levels in the blood. Thus seeking to limit cholesterol uptake from one's diet, and specifically, the meal which the plant sterol product is taken together with, will have little or no effect on actually lowering cholesterol levels in the blood. Studies also show that unless we are consuming enough sources of 'good' fats and oils, i.e. monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, then simply taking a plant sterols product in conjunction with one's regular diet will do nothing to boost our good cholesterol levels or to remove atherosclerotic plaque from the arteries. If one consumes a plant sterols product in conjunction with a healthy diet containing enough 'good' fats and limited long chain saturated fats and transfats, then it is will probably be beneficial. However, it is not necessary, and is probably marketed to 'lazy people' to lull them into a false sense of security that they can simply continue their normal unhealthy diet (hig